Description

1.1 introduction/ background

Rural women are the key agents in achieving environmental and social changes required for poverty reduction and sustainable development Bayeh (2016). Women’s play an important role as food producers and agricultural entrepreneurs (Diouf (2012). They are also involved in other household and non‐farm income generating activities, such as vending trading, brick making as well as sewing, Women usually invest a higher proportion of their earnings in their families and communities than men, thus empowering women is critical for eradicating poverty and accelerating global development and has a positive impact on growth and progress of their families and communities Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) (2012). However, female farmers are represented among the poor in most rural areas Tibesigwa (2016) the main reason why these farmers dominate the poor is that they engage in low paying income activities without adequate resources or formal training. 

agriculture remains the largest employment sector in Africa with about 57% of Africa's labour force, and the main source of income in most rural areas, African Development Report (2015). The majority of Africa's poor resides in rural areas depends on agriculture as a source of livelihood IFPRI (2014). Although productivity in this sector is largely undermined by its low mechanization, allocation of resources between men and women has left the continent with less than the desired level of productivity Asongu (2018).

Female farmers have relatively high overall labour-force participation rates and the highest average agricultural labour-force participation rates in the world Achampong (2012) they perform about 90% of the work of processing food crops and food storage and transportation from farm to village, and 60% of the work from harvesting and marketing of farm produce.

Most female farmers are food producers working on joint family farms and they use their own land for household food production Shafiwu et al (2013) They are involved in both livestock and crop production at subsistence and commercial levels, they produce food and cash crops and manage mixed agricultural operations. Female farmers are often engaged in trading of grain and vegetable while most of the male farmers are involved in livestock trading- like cattle, goats etc. Mume et al (2014).

Collins et al., (2015) argue that Lower levels of education and limited access to markets have also contributed to the low productivity among female farmers, In most developing countries, statutory and customary laws continue to restrict women’s access to land and other assets Barrett (2014). Other studies have found that financial and resource constraints as well as lower levels of access to information and extension services can prevent the engagement in agricultural activities Jost et al., (2015). World Bank (2012) opines that Lower levels of income in developing countries, as well as increased on part-time, informal and insecure employment mean that they are less able to invest in resources and inputs for their productive activities and become less attractive to financial institutions. 

Th role of female farmers in ensuring household food security remains unrecognized in policy and resource allocation, especially in developing countries. The voices and concerns of rural women are little heard at the national and global level Achampong (2017) Increasing female participation in the labour force has a positive impact on economic growth, Rural development in Africa cannot be imagined without the active participation of women.

 women play a critical role in agriculture, there is a need for increased understanding of how to improve women’s involvement in agricultural research Paul et al., (2017) Empowerment is central to women’s participation in agricultural activities and achieving sustainable development. To empower women, it is important to understand their current participation and the factors that influence their participation in different stages of the agricultural research process. Kabeer (2001) defines empowerment as an expansion of people’s ability to make strategic life choices, particularly in contexts where this ability has been denied to them

Most developing countries now recognize that the fight against gender bias in agriculture is crucial to sustaining economic growth and ensuring food security.

Problem Statement

 Increasing female participation in the labour force has a positive impact on economic growth. Rural development in Africa cannot be imagined without the active participation of female farmers. Nahusay (2017) noted that Women are poor because they have fewer economic opportunities and less autonomy than men. Their access to economic resources, education and support services are limited. Mondel (2013) revealed that women have no power for decision making process either inside or outside their home, female farmers suffer from high illiteracy rate among them and drops out of schools, lack of proper knowledge about modern agricultural technologies may lead to lower participation. According to FAO (2011) women are negatively influenced by traditional patterns and previous economic policies.

 in various studies gender has been found to influence participation processes, for instance Women’s are often excluded from participation, leadership and decision-making processes in various developing societies around the World Tanwir et al (2013) Participation among female farmers is further influenced by age, time and previous membership in organizations.

Female farmers face difficulties in accessing formal agricultural markets Vermuelen (2011), Lack of market is a common feature of farmers world-wide and is identified as a constraint to female farmers development, underdeveloped women farmers find it difficult to participate in commercial markets because of a range of constraints including poor infrastructure, inadequate property rights. Women’s activities in agriculture are characterized by a global gender gap in vulnerabilities, access to resources, and productivity Perez et al., (2015). According to Sheahan (2014) Substantial gender gaps in access and control continue to exist regarding key resources and inputs for agriculture such as land access, financial credit, extension assistance and advanced technology.

The greatest percentage of rural women all over the world are confronted with poor health and work conditions, limited access to education, insecure employment, and low income. This is because of problems related to land ownership, access and control of livelihood assets that has severely affected women’s production Abdullahi et al., (2012) leading to women taking poor decisions in respect of agricultural operation choices.

FAO (2019) noted that women in sub-Saharan countries remain a vulnerable marginalized group that is yet to enjoy the equality in status and access to services and resources with their

counterparts, Women are found at the “bottom rung of poverty, illiteracy, landlessness” and are concentrated in rural areas where facilities and services are scarce.

Among the major reasons why smallholder farmers in developing countries live below poverty line is their inability to access markets easily. This problem has reduced the involvement of women’s in agricultural productivity Adepoju (2012) Improved market conditions would encourage farmers to increase their production scale; generate enough incomes and consequently promote rural economic development. It is necessary that policymakers and stakeholders to formulate policy frameworks that provide an enabling business environment and facilitate the marketing transaction of female farmers in rural communities. 

Finance and access to inputs are considered as important investment streams that can lead to sustainable production, agricultural financing plays an important role in increasing production and encouraging farmers to overcome the initial financial barriers for purchasing inputs such as feed and fertilisers Norman et al., (2016)

Objectives of the study 

Overall objectives

The main objective of the study is to determine the extent of women participation in agricultural activities in rural and urban areas of the Eastern Cape province

Specific objectives 

To identify factors that influence women participation in agriculture.

To identify the role of female farmers and the empowerment of female farmers 

1.4 Significance of the study

the elimination of barriers to women’s access to productive resources can lead to the productive participation of women in agricultural development and women can earn recognition as important players in the development process. The study will increase the understanding and awareness of gender issues in agriculture and rural development, the study will also allow policy makers, community developers to gain a deeper knowledge and background of the reasons behind economic limitations in rural areas. Rural people lack access to information, they are not aware of many government-provided opportunities available for them. Increasing agricultural activities may have a positive impact on poverty reduction in most rural areas. 

1.5 Outline of the study

The study consists of three chapters, chapter one is organised as follows, introduction/background, problem statement as well as objectives, significance of the study and outline of the study. Chapter two have a literature review of the study and chapter three have a conclusion and recommendations.

                                          Chapter two 

2.0 literature review

Farming, especially subsistence farming, is declining at an increasing rate in South Africa. Many rural households in Eastern Cape about 78%, generate their income and livelihoods from subsistence farming Bedemo et al., (2013) further stated that most rural households' income is generated from other sources such grants, migrant labour and selling of goods rather than agricultural activities, It has been found that rural households have land but lack the motivation to practice farming due to limited access to inputs and poor infrastructure hence their farming is inefficient and decreasing Mathebula et al., (2017) urban areas still faces enormous challenges related to the concentration of public services and economic activities in central regions, marginalization, characterized by social and racial exclusion and the lack of the integration of green areas, characterized by environmental and public health problems Oliveira (2017)

Integration can be seen from the existence of the urban poor as resource use, urban agricultural land, organic waste for composting, deal directly with consumers (the town), have a direct impact to the urban ecology (positive or negative), became part of the urban food system, competition in acquiring land with other urban functions, are affected by planning and urban policy  Julie (2013), Activities of urban agriculture in general has a very important role because it is needed in support of food security with the availability of adequate food, the ability to access of food, and the dependence of food at any party, then the position of farmers in the activities of urban agriculture has a strategic position to support food security.

Age influence participation in agricultural activities in different areas of south Africa including cities, Gentil (2014) noted that young people see agriculture as an image problem, characterised by laborious and low income that does not equate with their aspiration or offer an attractive future, even those that are involve in agriculture they use it as temporally measure rather than a source of income.

In urban and in rural areas there are agricultural projects and programmes, which constitute major sources and means of accessing modern agricultural inputs, Hence, women are vulnerable to poverty because most of them have limited access to agricultural land and their participation in the agricultural programmes is often through their husbands or adult sons Uduji et al., (2018)  

Low levels of education and limited access to markets have also contributed to the low productivity among female farmers Doss (2018), female farmers can play important and varied roles in agriculture, but they often have unequal access to productive resources and opportunities relative to men, closing these gaps would be good for women and development in African agriculture.

2.1 Factors that influence the participation of female farmers in agricultural activities

Credit 

Ojiako (2012) state that Access to credit is considered as one of the main components in increasing agricultural productivity, Kiplimo (2015) argued that one important way to enhance the agricultural productivity is by enhancing small-scale farmers` access to credit services to enable them to afford technologies and essential production inputs.

increased use of capital-intensive technologies on commercial farms Brasier et al., (2016) argue that commercial agriculture is economically dominated by an emphasis on large-scale commodity production to maximise profit, large scale commodities require capital investment and high inputs fertilisers as well as fuel for transportation of agricultural produce from the farm to the marketplace.

Terman (2015} noted that it is impossible for rural women to obtain large capital or more hectares of land to increase their farm productivity the problem could be lack of access to credit and women are less likely to inherit the farm from their parents. increased use of machinery and advanced technologies on conventional farms increase the barriers women face (Sachs et al., 2016).

Ruel et al., (2010) argue that access to financial services such as savings or credit facilities is generally scarce in rural areas, the lack of provision and financing of inputs is one of the major constraints in women participation in agricultural activities. There is a need to supporting rural women financially in most disadvantage rural areas to stimulate the participation of women in agriculture.

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